Nature of the subject
History is a dynamic, contested, evidence-based discipline that involves an exciting engagement with the past. It is a rigorous intellectual discipline, focused around key historical concepts such as change, causation and significance.
History is an exploratory subject that fosters a sense of inquiry. It is also an interpretive discipline, allowing opportunity for engagement with multiple perspectives and a plurality of opinions. Studying history develops an understanding of the past, which leads to a deeper understanding of the nature of humans and of the world today.
The IB Diploma Programme (DP) history course is a world history course based on a comparative and multiperspective approach to history. It involves the study of a variety of types of history, including political, economic, social and cultural, and provides a balance of structure and flexibility. The course emphasizes the importance of encouraging students to think historically and to develop historical skills as well as gaining factual knowledge. It puts a premium on developing the skills of critical thinking, and on developing an understanding of multiple interpretations of history. In this way, the course involves a challenging and demanding critical exploration of the past.
There are six key concepts that have particular prominence throughout the DP history course: change, continuity, causation, consequence, significance and perspectives.
Course aims
- Encourage the systematic and critical study of: human experience and behaviour; physical, economic and social environments; and the history and development of social and cultural institutions
- Develop in the student the capacity to identify, to analyse critically and to evaluate theories, concepts and arguments about the nature and activities of the individual and society
- Enable the student to collect, describe and analyse data used in studies of society, to test hypotheses, and to interpret complex data and source material
- Promote the appreciation of the way in which learning is relevant both to the culture in which the student lives, and the culture of other societies
- Develop an awareness in the student that human attitudes and beliefs are widely diverse and that the study of society requires an appreciation of such diversity
- Enable the student to recognize that the content and methodologies of the individuals and societies subjects are contestable and that their study requires the toleration of uncertainty
- Develop an understanding of, and continuing interest in, the past
- Encourage students to engage with multiple perspectives and to appreciate the complex nature of historical concepts, issues, events and developments
- Promote international-mindedness through the study of history from more than one region of the world
- Develop an understanding of history as a discipline and to develop historical consciousness including a sense of chronology and context, and an understanding of different historical perspectives
- Develop key historical skills, including engaging effectively with sources
- Increase students understanding of themselves and of contemporary society by encouraging reflection on the past
Assessment objectives
Knowledge and understanding
- demonstrate detailed, relevant and accurate historical knowledge
- demonstrate understanding of historical concepts and context
- demonstrate understanding of historical sources
Application and analysis
- formulate clear and coherent arguments
- use relevant historical knowledge to effectively support analysis
- analyse and interpret a variety of sources
Synthesis and evaluation
- integrate evidence and analysis to produce a coherent response
- evaluate different perspectives on historical issues and events, and integrate this evaluation effectively into a response
- evaluate sources as historical evidence, recognizing their value and limitations
- synthesise information from a selection of relevant sources
Use and application of appropriate skills
- structure and develop focused essays that respond effectively to the demands of a question
- reflect on the methods used by, and challenges facing, the historian
- formulate an appropriate, focused question to guide a historical inquiry
- demonstrate evidence of research skills, organization, referencing and selection of appropriate sources
Standard level
Internal Assessment
Historical investigation
- A: Identification and evaluation of sources
- B: Investigation
- C: Reflection
External Assessment
Paper 1: Source-based paper based on the five prescribed subjects- Q1. Understanding of sources
- Q2. Analysis of the value and limitations of sources
- Q3. Comparing and contrasting what sources reveal
- Q4. Evaluation
- 1. Society and economy (750-1400)
- 2. Causes and effects of medieval wars (750-1500)
- 3. Dynasties and rulers (750-1500)
- 4. Societies in transition (1400-1700)
- 5. Early Modern states (1450-1789)
- 6. Causes and effects of Early Modern wars (1500-1750)
- 7. Origins, development and impact of industrialization (1750-2005)
- 8. Independence movements (1800-2000)
- 9. Evolution and development of democratic states (1848-2000)
- 10. Authoritarian states (20th century)
- 11. Causes and effects of 20th-century wars
- 12. The Cold War: Superpower tensions and rivalries (20th century)
Higher level
Internal Assessment
Historical investigation
- A: Identification and evaluation of sources
- B: Investigation
- C: Reflection
External Assessment
Paper 1: Source-based paper based on the five prescribed subjects- Q1. Understanding of sources
- Q2. Analysis of the value and limitations of sources
- Q3. Comparing and contrasting what sources reveal
- Q4. Evaluation
- 1. Society and economy (750-1400)
- 2. Causes and effects of medieval wars (750-1500)
- 3. Dynasties and rulers (750-1500)
- 4. Societies in transition (1400-1700)
- 5. Early Modern states (1450-1789)
- 6. Causes and effects of Early Modern wars (1500-1750)
- 7. Origins, development and impact of industrialization (1750-2005)
- 8. Independence movements (1800-2000)
- 9. Evolution and development of democratic states (1848-2000)
- 10. Authoritarian states (20th century)
- 11. Causes and effects of 20th-century wars
- 12. The Cold War: Superpower tensions and rivalries (20th century)
- History of Africa and the Middle East
- History of the Americas
- History of Asia and Oceania
- History of Europe
1. Military leaders
- Case study 1: Genghis Khan c1200-1227
- Leadership:
- Rise to power; uniting of rival tribes
- Motives and objectives; success in achieving those objectives
- Reputation: military prowess; naming as Genghis Khan (1206)
- Importance of Genghis Khan’s leadership to Mongol success
- Campaigns:
- Mongol invasion of China: attacks on the Jin dynasty; capture of Beijing (1215)
- Mongol invasion of Central Asia and Iran; Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia (1219–1221)
- Mongol military technology, organization, strategy and tactics
- Impact:
- Political impact: administration; overthrowing of existing ruling systems; establishment of Mongol law/Yassa; move towards meritocracy
- Economic impact: establishment, enhancement and protection of trade routes
- Social, cultural and religious impact: population displacement; terror, looting and murdering; raiding and destruction of settlements; religious, cultural and technological exchange; religious freedom under the Mongols
- Case study 2: Richard I of England (1173-1199)
- Leadership:
- Rise to power: revolt of Richard I and his brothers against Henry II (1173–1174)
- Reputation: military prowess; chivalry; “Richard the Lionheart”
- Motives and objectives: defence and recovery of the French lands; defence of the crusader states and recovery of lost territory; success in achieving those objectives
- Campaigns:
- Occupation of Sicily (1190–1191); conquest of Cyprus (1191)
- Involvement in the Third Crusade (1191–1192)
- The course, outcome and effects of Richard I’s campaigns in France, the Mediterranean and the Middle East
- Impact:
- Political impact in England: absence of the king; political instability; revolt of John and Philip in Richard’s absence
- Political impact in France: growth in prestige and strength of the Capetian monarchy; expansion of royal control
- Economic impact: raising money for campaigns; taxation of clergy; raising of the ransom after his capture and imprisonment by Leopold V, Duke of Austria and Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1193)
- Social, cultural and religious impact: anti-Jewish violence; treatment of Muslim prisoners during the Third Crusade
2. Conquest and its impact
- Case study 1: The final stages of Muslim rule in Spain
- Context and motives:
- Political context in Iberia and Al-Andalus in the late 15th century; internal conflicts and alliances in Granada in the late 15th century
- Social and economic context in Iberia and Al-Andalus in the late 15th century; coexistence of population; intercultural exchange; economic decline; heavy taxation
- Motives: political motives; religious motives and the role of the church
- Key events and actors:
- The Granada War and the conquest of Granada (1482–1492)
- Treaty of Granada (1491); Alhambra decree (1492)
- Key actors: Fernando de Aragón and Isabel de Castilla; Abu Abdallah, last king of Granada
- Impact:
- Social and demographic changes; persecution, enslavement and emigration; new institutions: encomienda, fueros
- Forced conversions and expulsions; Marranos, Mudéjars
- The Spanish Inquisition
- Case study 2: The conquest of Mexico and Peru (1519-1551)
- Context and motives:
- Political and economic motives for exploration and conquest
- Religious arguments for the conquest
- Key events and actors:
- Hernán Cortés and the campaign against the Aztec Empire; alliances with indigenous populations
- Francisco Pizarro and the campaign against the Incas; alliances with indigenous populations
- Key actors: Diego de Almagro, Malinche, Atahualpa, Moctezuma II; Las Casas against Sepúlveda
- Impact:
- Social and economic impact on indigenous populations; the encomienda and Mita systems
- Causes and effects of demographic change; spread of disease
- Cultural interaction and exchange
3. The move to global war
- Case study 1: Japanese expansion in East Asia (1931-1941)
- Causes of expansion:
- The impact of Japanese nationalism and militarism on foreign policy
- Japanese domestic issues: political and economic issues, and their impact on foreign relations
- Political instability in China
- Events:
- Japanese invasion of Manchuria and northern China (1931)
- Sino-Japanese War (1937–1941)
- The Three Power/Tripartite Pact; the outbreak of war; Pearl Harbor (1941)
- Responses:
- League of Nations and the Lytton report
- Political developments within China—the Second United Front
- International response, including US initiatives and increasing tensions between the US and Japan
- Case study 2: German and Italian expansion (1933-1940)
- Causes of expansion:
- Impact of fascism and Nazism on the foreign policies of Italy and Germany
- Impact of domestic economic issues on the foreign policies of Italy and Germany
- Changing diplomatic alignments in Europe; the end of collective security; appeasement
- Events:
- German challenges to the post-war settlements (1933–1938)
- Italian expansion: Abyssinia (1935–1936); Albania; entry into the Second World War
- German expansion (1938–1939); Pact of Steel, Nazi–Soviet Pact and the outbreak of war
- Responses:
- International response to German aggression (1933–1938)
- International response to Italian aggression (1935–1936)
- International response to German and Italian aggression (1940)
4. Rights and protest
- Case study 1: Civil rights movement in the United States (1954-1965)
- Nature and characteristics of discrimination:
- Racism and violence against African Americans; the Ku Klux Klan; disenfranchisement
- Segregation and education; Brown versus Board of Education decision (1954); Little Rock (1957)
- Economic and social discrimination; legacy of the Jim Crow laws; impact on individuals
- Protests and action:
- Non-violent protests; Montgomery bus boycott (1955–1956); Freedom Rides (1961); Freedom Summer (1964)
- Legislative changes: Civil Rights Act (1964); Voting Rights Act (1965)
- The role and significance of key actors/groups:
- Key actors: Martin Luther King Jr; Malcolm X; Lyndon B Johnson
- Key groups: National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP); Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC); the Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)
- Case study 2: Apartheid South Africa (1948-1964)
- Nature and characteristics of discrimination:
- “Petty Apartheid” and “Grand Apartheid” legislation
- Division and “classification”; segregation of populations and amenities; creation of townships/forced removals; segregation of education; Bantustan system; impact on individuals
- Protests and action:
- Non-violent protests: bus boycotts; defiance campaign, Freedom Charter
- Increasing violence: the Sharpeville massacre (1960) and the decision to adopt the armed struggle
- Official response: the Rivonia trial (1963–1964) and the imprisonment of the ANC leadership
- The role and significance of key actors/groups:
- Key individuals: Nelson Mandela; Albert Luthuli
- Key groups: the African National Congress (ANC); the South African Communist Party (SACP) and the MK (Umkhonto we Sizwe—“Spear of the Nation”)
5. Conflict and intervention
- Case study 1: Rwanda (1990-1998)
- Causes of the conflict:
- Ethnic tensions in Rwanda; the creation of the Hutu power movement and the Interahamwe; role of the media
- Other causes: economic situation; colonial legacy
- Rwandan Civil War (1990–1993); assassination of Habyarimana and Ntaryamira (1994)
- Course and interventions:
- Actions of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and Rwandan government; role of the media
- Nature of the genocide and other crimes against humanity; war rape
- Response of the international community; the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR); reasons for inaction; role of France, Belgium and the US
- Impact:
- Social impact; refugee crisis; justice and reconciliation
- International impact; establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994)
- Political and economic impact; RPF-led governments; continued warfare in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire)
- Case study 2: Kosovo (1989-2002)
- Causes of the conflict:
- Ethnic tensions between Serbs and Kosovar Albanians; rising Albanian nationalism
- Political causes: constitutional reforms (1989–1994); repression of the Albanian independence campaign
- Role and significance of Slobodan Milosevic and Ibrahim Rugova
- Course and interventions:
- Actions of Kosovo Liberation Army, Serbian government police and military
- Ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity; significance of the Račak massacre
- Response of the international community; response of the UN; NATO bombing campaign; Kosovo Force (KFOR)
- Impact:
- Social and economic consequences; refugee crisis; damage to infrastructure
- Political impact in Kosovo; election of Ibrahim Rugova as president (2002)
- International reaction and impact; International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY); indictment of Milosevic
1. Society and economy (750-1400)
- Society and economy:
- Changes in social structures and systems
- Impact of population change; impact of famines and disease
- Role of women in society: economic and non-economic roles
- Nature and development of trade; changes in economic systems; taxation
- Changes in travel and transportation
- Cultural and intellectual developments:
- Role and significance of key individuals
- Factors affecting the transmission of ideas and cultures
- Significance and impact of artistic and cultural developments; developments in architecture
- Developments in science and technology
- Religion and society:
- Religious institutions: religious institutions and the economy; influence of religious institutions on society
- Religious leaders: role of religious leaders in government and administration; disputes between rulers and religious leaders
- Treatment of religious minorities; religious persecution
- Spread of religion
2. Causes and effects of medieval wars (750-1500)
- Types and causes of conflicts:
- Dynastic, territorial and religious disputes
- Economic causes, competition for resources
- Ideological and political causes
- Religious causes
- Long-term, short-term and immediate causes
- Course/practices:
- Role and significance of leaders
- Raising armies: knighthood, military service and mercenaries; taxation
- Logistics, tactics and organization of warfare
- Women and war
- Effects:
- Conquest, boundary and dynastic changes
- Treaties and truces
- Political repercussions
- Economic, social, religious and cultural changes
- Demographic changes and population movements
3. Dynasties and rulers (750-1500)
- Dynasties and rulers:
- Individual rulers: nature of power and rule; aims and achievements
- Methods used to legitimize, consolidate and maintain rule
- Expansion of dynasties/kingdoms: reasons for expansion; methods used to expand power; invasion and settlement
- Law, governing institutions and administration:
- Models and methods of government and administration
- Sources of religious and secular law
- Administration and interpretation of law
- Role and duties of officials; role of nobility and the elite
- Challenges:
- Successes and failures of dynasties and rulers
- Internal and external challenges to power; the success with which these challenges were overcome
- Rebellion and/or political opposition; rivalries and issues of succession
4. Societies in transition (1400-1700)
- Social and economic change:
- Changing social structures and systems; role of women in society
- Population expansion and movements
- Treatment of minorities
- Economic change: development of, and changing patterns of, trade; role and impact of merchants and travellers
- Cultural and intellectual change:
- Artistic, cultural and intellectual movements
- Cross-cultural exchange
- Scientific and technological developments; social and cultural impact of those developments
- Role and significance of key intellectual/scientific figures
- Religious change:
- Religion and the state: interactions and relationships; religion as a support or a challenge to the state
- Religious expansion and conversion
- Religious division, conflict, discrimination and persecution
5. Early Modern states (1450-1789)
- Nature of power and rule:
- Established and new states; states in ascendancy and states in decline
- Methods and models of government; reasons for changes in political structures/political organization; domestic policies; treatment of subjects
- Individual rulers: ideology; nature of rule; ambition and achievements; legitimacy; successes and failures
- Expansion:
- Expansion of established states; political and economic reasons for expansion
- Political organization in established states: structures of government and political structure; models and methods of government; relationship between religion and the state
- Establishment and expansion of colonial empires; political and economic reasons for expansion and acquisition of territory
- Political organization in colonial states: structures of government and political structure in the colonial world; models and methods of government; relationship between religion and the state
- Conflicts and challenges:
- Methods of maintaining power; treatment of opposition
- Support and opposition; challenges to power and how successfully those challenges were overcome
- Challenges to colonial rule: resistance, rebellions and their impact; the colonial race—competition and conflict
- Rivalries and tensions; issues of succession
6. Causes and effects of Early Modern wars (1500-1750)
- Causes of conflicts:
- Ideological and political causes
- Economic causes; competition for resources
- Religious causes
- Short- and long-term causes
- Practices and impact on outcome:
- Role and significance of leaders
- Raising armies: military service and mercenaries; taxation
- Organization of warfare; strategies: land and/or sea
- Significance of technological developments
- Influence and/or involvement of foreign powers
- Effects:
- The successes and/or failures of peacemaking
- Economic, political and territorial impact
- Social and religious impact
- Demographic changes and population movements
7. Origins, development and impact of industrialization (1750-2005)
- The origins of industrialization:
- The causes and enablers of industrialization; the availability of human and natural resources; political stability; infrastructure
- Role and significance of technological developments
- Role and significance of individuals
- The impact and significance of key developments:
- Developments in transportation
- Developments in energy and power
- Industrial infrastructure; iron and steel
- Mass production
- Developments in communications
- The social and political impact of industrialization:
- Urbanization and the growth of cities and factories
- Labour conditions; organization of labour
- Political representation; opposition to industrialization
- Impact on standards of living; disease and life expectancy; leisure; literacy and media
8. Independence movements (1800-2000)
- Origins and rise of independence movements, up to the point of independence:
- Development of movements: role and relative importance of nationalism and political ideology
- Development of movements: role and relative importance of religion, race, social and economic factors
- Wars as a cause and/or catalyst for independence movements
- Other internal and external factors fostering growth of independence movements
- Methods used and reasons for success:
- Methods of achieving independence (including violent and non-violent methods)
- Role and importance of leaders of independence movements
- The role and relative importance of other factors in the success of independence movements
- Challenges faced in the first 10 years, and responses to the challenges:
- Challenges: political problems; ethnic, racial and separatist movements
- Social, cultural and economic challenges
- Responses to those challenges, and the effectiveness of those responses
9. Evolution and development of democratic states (1848-2000)
- Emergence of democratic states:
- Conditions that encouraged the demand for democratic reform: aftermath of war and/or political upheaval; political, social and economic factors; external influences
- The role and significance of leaders
- Development of political parties, constitutions and electoral systems; the significance/impact of those developments
- The development of democratic states:
- Factors influencing the evolution of democratic states: immigration; ideology; economic forces; foreign influences
- Responses to, and impact of, domestic crises
- Struggle for equality: suffrage movements; civil protests
- Impact of democracy on society:
- Social and economic policies and reforms: education; social welfare; policies towards women and minorities; the distribution of wealth
- The extent to which citizens benefit from those policies
- Cultural impact; freedom of expression in the arts and media
10. Authoritarian states (20th century)
- Emergence of authoritarian states:
- Conditions in which authoritarian states emerged: economic factors; social division; impact of war; weakness of political system
- Methods used to establish authoritarian states: persuasion and coercion; the role of leaders; ideology; the use of force; propaganda
- Consolidation and maintenance of power:
- Use of legal methods; use of force; charismatic leadership; dissemination of propaganda
- Nature, extent and treatment of opposition
- The impact of the success and/or failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power
- Aims and results of policies:
- Aims and impact of domestic economic, political, cultural and social policies
- The impact of policies on women and minorities
- Authoritarian control and the extent to which it was achieved
11. Causes and effects of 20th-century wars
- Causes of war:
- Economic, ideological, political, territorial and other causes
- Short- and long-term causes
- Practices of war and their impact on the outcome:
- Types of war: civil wars; wars between states; guerrilla wars
- Technological developments; theatres of war—air, land and sea
- The extent of the mobilization of human and economic resources
- The influence and/or involvement of foreign powers
- Effects of war:
- The successes and failures of peacemaking
- Territorial changes
- Political repercussions
- Economic, social and demographic impact; changes in the role and status of women
12. The Cold War: Superpower tensions and rivalries (20th century)
- Rivalry, mistrust and accord:
- The breakdown of the grand alliance and the emergence of superpower rivalry in Europe and Asia (1943–1949): role of ideology; fear and aggression; economic interests; a comparison of the roles of the US and the USSR
- The US, USSR and China—superpower relations (1947–1979): containment; peaceful co-existence; Sino-Soviet and Sino-US relations; detente
- Confrontation and reconciliation; reasons for the end of the Cold War (1980–1991): ideological challenges and dissent; economic problems; arms race
- Leaders and nations:
- The impact of two leaders, each chosen from a different region, on the course and development of the Cold War
- The impact of Cold War tensions on two countries (excluding the USSR and the US)
- Cold War crises:
- Cold War crises case studies: detailed study of any two Cold War crises from different regions: examination and comparison of the causes, impact and significance of the two crises
1: The ‘Abbasid dynasty (750-1258)
- The fall of the Umayyads and the 'Abbasid Revolution; reasons for 'Abbasid defeat of the Umayyads, including the role of 'Abbasid military power; the consequences of the revolution; the shift of power from Syria to Iraq
- Political, social and economic aspects of the first century of 'Abbasid rule
- Religious aspects of 'Abbasid rule, the role of the Ulama
- The impact of other civilizations on the 'Abbasids; the Sassanian heritage
- Case studies: al-Mansur; Harun al-Rashid; al-Ma'mun
- Science, culture, philosophy and invention during the Golden Age of Islam
- Decline of the empire; breakdown of 'Abbasid authority; rifts and divisions; Mongol invasion
2: The Fatimids (909-1171)
- Foundation of the dynasty; political, economic and social factors
- Conquest of Egypt and the foundation of Cairo; reasons for, and impact of, the conquest
- Fatimid claims to the caliphate: the 'Abbasids and Umayyads of Spain
- Fatimid ideology and its historical impact; religious relations (Muslims, Coptic Christians, Jews)
- Economic developments including trade within the Fatimid realm of influence
- Height of the Fatimid Empire; government institutions; institutions of learning (Dar al-'Ilm)
- Decline of the Fatimids: internal dissolution; external challenges
- Case studies of two of the following: al-Mu'izz (953–975); al-Hakim (996–1021); al-Mustansir (1036–1094)
3: The Crusades (1095-1291)
- Origins of, and motives for, the Crusades: religious and secular; the holy places; pilgrimage and preaching; theory and practice of jihad
- The First Crusade (1096–1099); the Second Crusade (1145–1149), Third Crusade (1189–1192) and Fourth Crusade (1202–1204): causes; extent of success; consequences
- Foundation of the crusader states: Jerusalem, Antioch, Edessa and Tripoli
- Role and significance of key individuals: Godfrey de Bouillon, Richard I of England, Nur al-Din, Salah al-Din (Saladin) and Baibars
- Military aspects of the Crusades: tactics, major battles and weapons; Templars, Hospitallers, Assassins
- Reasons for successes and failures of both sides throughout the period of the Crusades
- Impact and importance of the Crusades in the Middle East and in the Byzantine Empire
4: The Ottomans (1281-1566)
- Rise of the Ottomans: Anatolia and the Balkans
- Effects of the foundation of the Ottoman Empire on Europe and Muslim lands
- Rise of the Safavids and contest with the Ottomans
- Ottoman expansion: reasons for; the conquests of Egypt and Syria; fall of the Mamluks—impact and significance
- Military and administrative nature of the Ottoman Empire; changes to the Islamic world; Ottoman contribution to Islamic culture
- Ottoman invasion and capture of Byzantium; reasons for, and consequences of, the fall of Constantinople (1453); its effect on transforming the Ottoman state
- Case studies of two of the following: Mehmet II (1451–1481); Selim I (1512–1520); Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566)
5: Trade and the rise and decline of African states and empires (800-1600)
- Types of trade: trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt—importance of different routes and control over these; impact of trade on the rise and decline of empires; Indian Ocean trade in slaves, ivory, spices and textiles
- Impact of trade on the spread of religion and culture: the Islamization of East and West Africa; influence of Catholicism in the Kingdom of the Kongo
- Ghana Empire (c830–1235): causes of the rise and decline of the Ghana Empire; system of government; social and economic organization; importance of trade; the Almoravid jihad
- Mali Empire (c1230–1600): causes of the rise and decline of the Mali Empire; social, economic and administrative reforms; military organization; importance of Islam; trade
- Rise and expansion of the Kingdom of the Kongo to 1600: political, social and economic organization
- Swahili city states: importance of the Indian Ocean trade in the rise and growth of the city states; emergence of a cosmopolitan Swahili culture
6: Pre-colonial African states (1800-1900)
- Rise of the Zulu under Shaka; the Mfecane/Difaqane—social, political and economic causes and effects; rise of the Sotho under Moshoeshoe
- Rise of the Sokoto Caliphate under Usman Dan Fodio, and its effects
- Rise of the Niger Delta trading states: Nana and Jaja
- Ethiopian unification and expansion under Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, Menelik II
- Rise of the Mahdist state in Sudan
- Case studies of the rise of two of the following: the Mandinka Empire under Samori Toure; the Lozi kingdom under Lewanika; the Ndebele kingdom under Mziklikazi and Lobengula; the Asante empire under Osei Tutu; the Unyamwezi under Mirambo; the Hehe state under Mkwawa
7: The slave trade in Africa and the Middle East (1500-1900)
- Reasons for the expansion of the Atlantic slave trade from the 16th century: technological factors and the growth of maritime commerce; impact on the slave trade of plantation agriculture; existing practice of slavery in African societies; rivalries and warfare between African states
- Reasons for the expansion of the East African slave trade from the late 18th century: existing slave trade between Arabia and the Swahili coast; expansion of the Sultanate of Oman into East Africa; rising international demand resulting from the ban on the Atlantic trade
- Nature of the slave trade: its social and economic impact in Africa and the Middle East; role and significance of individuals
- Causes of the decline of the Atlantic slave trade: industrialization and economic changes; role of the abolitionist movement; rise of legitimate commerce
- Causes of the decline of the East African slave trade: humanitarian factors and the influence of missionaries; colonial expansion and the closing of the markets; decline of slavery in the Ottoman Empire
- Impact and significance of anti-slavery Acts in the 19th century; including 1807 Slave Trade Act, 1833 Abolition of Slavery Act, 1885 Berlin Act
8: European imperialism and the partition of Africa (1850-1900)
- Growth of European activity in Africa: opportunities presented by the decline of the Ottoman Empire; traders, missionaries and explorers; creeping colonization
- Economic causes of partition: economic weaknesses in Europe; raw materials; search for new markets; role of chartered companies
- Strategic causes of the partition: the sea route to the east; British actions in Egypt and South Africa, and the responses of other European powers
- Other causes: national rivalry; humanitarian factors
- African background to partition: military, technological and administrative weaknesses; political and cultural disunity; collaboration
- German annexation: factors facilitating the annexation; the Berlin West Africa Conference and its impact
- Activities of King Leopold II of Belgium and De Brazza in the Congo region
9: Response to European imperialism (1870-1920)
- Factors influencing decisions to resist: determination to preserve independence; brutality and inflexibility of the colonizing power; political structures; military strength; access to firearms
- Ethiopian resistance under Menelik II: reasons for success
- Mandinka resistance to French rule: reasons for success and failure
- Herero and Nama resistance in Namibia: reasons for failure
- Cetshwayo and the conquest and destruction of the Zulu kingdom
- The Asante Wars (1873, 1896, 1900): reasons for Asante resistance and British intervention
- Factors influencing decisions to collaborate: pragmatism; willingness of the colonial power to negotiate; social, political and economic gains including protection; lack of alternative
- Collaboration: Lewanika and Khama with the British
- Resistance and collaboration in Buganda: Kabaka Mwanga and Apolo Kagwa, reasons for failure and success
10: Africa under colonialism (1890-1980)
- British rule in Kenya: colonial administration; economic and social development to 1963
- Tanganyika under German and British rule to 1961
- Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia under British rule: economic and social development to 1965; the creation and collapse of the Central African Federation; Ian Smith and the Unilateral Declaration of Independence
- Angola/Mozambique under Portuguese rule: economic and social development to 1975
- Nigeria: direct and indirect rule; factors that promoted the choice of administrative system in Nigeria; economic and social development; regional rivalries; constitutional developments to 1960
- Gold Coast: colonial administration; economic, social and political development to 1957
- Senegal: colonial administration; economic, social and political development to 1960
11: 20th-century nationalist and independence movements in Africa
- Angola: liberation war; Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) to independence in 1975
- South-West Africa: South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO) to independence for Namibia in 1990
- Kenya: trade unions; Mau Mau; Jomo Kenyatta and Kenya African National Union (KANU) to 1963
- Gold Coast to Ghana: Nkrumah and the Convention People’s Party (CPP) to independence in 1957
- French West Africa: nationalism, political parties and independence in Senegal in 1960
- Tanganyika: Tanganyika African National Union; Julius Nyerere to 1961
12: The Ottoman Empire (c1800-1923)
- Challenges to Ottoman power in the early 19th century: Greek War of Independence; Muhammad Ali in Egypt
- The Eastern Question: European challenges and Ottoman responses; Crimean War; causes and outcomes of 19th-century crises in the Balkans
- Decline of Ottoman power in the Middle East and North Africa: Egypt, Libya, Algeria; Lebanon
- Attempts at internal reform and modernizations: causes, aims and effects of Tanzimat reforms; Abdul Hamid—reaction and reform
- Growth of the Committee of Union and Progress to 1908–1909; reforms of the Young Turks; Balkan Wars (1912 and 1913)
- Ottoman Empire in the First World War: reasons for entry; impact of war; rise of Ataturk and collapse of empire
13: War and change in the Middle East and North Africa 1914-1945
- Allied diplomacy in the Middle East: McMahon–Hussein correspondence; Sykes–Picot; Arab Revolt; Balfour Declaration
- Effects of Paris peace treaties: territorial and political impact; mandate system; British and French administration in Iraq, Transjordan, Syria and Lebanon
- Egypt after the First World War: nationalism; emergence of Wafd Party; Declaration of Independence; British influence
- Palestine mandate: economic, social and political developments; impact of Jewish immigration and settlement; British responses and policies
- Ataturk and the Turkish Republic: aims and policies; impact on Turkish society; successes and failures
- Case study on Iran, Saudi Arabia or a North African state: economic, political and social developments; western influences; attempts at modernization
14: Africa, international organizations and the international community (20th century)
- League of Nations: Abyssinian Crisis (1934–1936); causes and consequences of the failure of the League of Nations to deal with Italian aggression
- Organization of African Unity (OAU) and African Union (AU): objectives, structure, successes and failures
- Regional organizations: East African Community (EAC) (1967–1977); Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS); Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC)/Southern African Development Community (SADC); successes and failures
- Africa and the UN: Congo, Mozambique, Somalia and Rwanda: reasons for successes and failures; wider impact
- UN specialized agencies: a case study of the impact of any two agencies
- The Cold War and its impact on Africa: a case study of the impact on any two African countries
15: Developments in South Africa 1880-1994
- Discovery of diamonds and gold: political, social and economic consequences
- South African War (1899–1902): causes—economic, political, strategic; course and consequences; the Treaty of Vereeniging and developments leading to the Act of Union (1909)
- Policies of Smuts and Hertzog (1910–1948); segregation, discrimination and protest
- National Party: reasons for the election victory of 1948; nature and impact of apartheid policies of Malan; Verwoerd and Grand Apartheid: the Bantustan system
- Resistance to apartheid: radicalization of resistance; the African National Congress (ANC); Sharpeville and the decision to adopt armed struggle; Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness movement; Soweto massacre; township unrest in the 1980s
- International opposition to apartheid: the impact of the economic boycott
- The end of the apartheid system: De Klerk’s lifting of the ban on the ANC; release of Mandela and his role in the transition to democracy; the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA); the 1994 elections
16: Social and cultural developments in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries
- Factors promoting and inhibiting the spread of Islam and Christianity in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries
- The African Independent Churches movement; reasons for the creation and growth of Africanist churches
- Changing social and cultural values
- Changing role of women
- Social and cultural impact of technological developments
- Impact of immigration and emigration
- Developments in the arts: the impact of colonialism on art and culture
- Developments in education
17: Post-war developments in the Middle East (1945-2000)
- Origins of the state of Israel: post-war tensions and instability in the mandate; causes and effects of the 1948–1949 War
- Arab–Israeli conflicts: Suez Crisis, Six Day War, 1973 War; effects of conflicts—occupied territories, intifadas, Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO); attempts at peacemaking up to, and including, Camp David (2000)
- Post-war Egypt: Nasser, Sadat, Mubarak—political developments; economic and social policies; Pan-Arabism and the United Arab Republic (UAR)
- Post-war Iran: modernization and westernization under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi; western influence; White Revolution; origins and effects of the 1979 Revolution; post-revolution Iran and effects of the Iran–Iraq War
- Lebanon: civil wars; outside interference and reconstruction; Confessional state; economic, religious and social tensions; growth of militias and the PLO
18: Post-independence politics in Africa to 2005
- Causes of ethnic conflict, civil war and military intervention: including ethnic tensions, economic problems, destabilization by outside forces, inefficiency of civilian governments, ideology, and personal ambition
- Impact of ethnic conflict, civil war and military intervention; impact of military rule
- Social and economic challenges: disease, illiteracy, poverty, famine; neo-colonial economic exploitation
- Establishment of single-party states; reasons for establishment, including personal ambition, failure of democracy, and need for effective government
- Return to multi-party democracy in the 1980s and 1990s: reasons for successes and failures
- Economic growth and development to 2005: reasons for growth, including political stability and multi-partyism; leadership; infrastructural development; investment; economic reforms
1: Indigenous societies and cultures in the Americas (c750-1500)
- Types of political organization: non-sedentary, semi-sedentary, confederations and empires; the role of local and state authorities
- The role of warfare in maintaining and expanding political organization
- Economic and social structures: role and nature of the tribute; landholding; agricultural production; systems of exchange; nature of the tribute in societies without money
- Religion: polytheistic beliefs; relationship between religious and political powers; relationship between man and nature
- Culture: written and unwritten language; contributions to scientific development and the arts
2: European explorations and conquests in the Americas (c1492-c1600)
- Exploration and conquest in North America: Columbus; conquest of the Caribbean; French and British exploration and occupation in North America
- Exploration and conquest in Latin America: Cortés and the conquest of the Aztecs; reasons for Spanish success and Aztec defeat; Pizarro and the conquest of the Incas; later defeat of Manco Inca; reasons for Spanish success and Inca defeat
- Economic impact of exploration and conquest: exploitation of resources; acquisition of gold and silver; fur trade; tobacco trade; the “Columbian Exchange”
- Treatment of indigenous populations; Law of Burgos (1512), New Laws of the Indies (1542); assimilation; eradication; social stratification; use of indigenous labour; women; multiracial issues
- European rivalries; Treaty of Tordesillas (1494); conflicting land claims based upon exploration; impact of conflicting claims
3: Colonial government in the New World (1500-1800)
- Political organization in Spanish and Portuguese America: viceroyalty system, captaincy system; Habsburg and early Bourbon rule; the Braganza rule
- Political organization in British and French North America: corporate, royal and proprietary; charters
- Colonial American economies; encomienda, yanaconaje and Mita; plantations; organization of trade; mercantilism; role of gold, silver and sugar
- Bourbon reforms and Pombaline reforms: reasons, nature and impact
- Limits of state power and resistance to authority
- Anglo-French rivalry in North America to 1763; Anglo-French relationships and alliances with indigenous peoples; French and Indian Wars
4: Religion in the New World (1500-1800)
- The aims of the Catholic church in Spanish and Portuguese America; its influence; resistance of indigenous populations to Christianization
- Jesuits, Franciscans and Dominicans in Spanish and Portuguese America: economic and political organization; relations with indigenous populations; challenges to government authority
- Indigenous religions and Christianity; syncretism
- Religious tolerance and intolerance in British North America: Puritans, Quakers, Anglicans and Catholics
- The Great Awakening c1720–c1760; social and political impact
- Religion in New France: Black Robes, Jesuits and Recollects
5: Slavery and the New World (1500-1800)
- Reasons for, and origins of, slavery
- Role of the colonial powers in the establishment and expansion of slavery; asiento system
- Economic and social impact of slavery
- Living and working conditions: the Middle Passage; social structures on plantations in the West Indies, Brazil and the southern colonies
- Slave resistance and slave rebellions
- Opposition to the slave trade and slavery: Quakers and other early abolitionists
6: Independence movements (1763-1830)
- Independence movements in the Americas: political, economic, social and religious causes; the influence of Enlightenment ideas; the role of foreign intervention; conflicts and issues leading to war
- Political, intellectual and military contributions of leaders to the process of independence: Washington, Bolivar and San Martin
- United States: processes leading to the Declaration of Independence; influence of ideas; nature of the declaration; military campaigns/battles and their impact on the outcome
- Latin America: characteristics of the independence processes; reasons for the similarities and differences in two Latin American countries; military campaigns/battles and their impact on the outcome
- Attitude of the United States towards Latin American independence; nature of, and reasons for, the Monroe Doctrine
- Impact of independence on the economies and societies of the Americas: economic cost of the wars of independence; the establishment of new trade relations; impact on different social groups—specifically indigenous peoples, African Americans, Creoles
7: Nation-building and challenges (c1780-c1870)
- United States: Articles of Confederation; the 1787 Constitution: philosophical underpinnings; major compromises and changes in the US political system
- Latin America: challenges to the establishment of political systems; the nature of caudillo rule, and regional conditions leading to its establishment; the policies and impact of caudillo rule in one country
- War of 1812: causes and impact on British North America and the United States
- Mexican–American War (1846–1848): causes and effects on the region
- Canada: causes and effects of 1837 rebellions; the Durham report and its implications; challenges to the Confederation; the British North America Act of 1867—compromises, unresolved issues, regionalism, effects
8: United States’ Civil War: Causes, course and effects (1840-1877)
- Slavery: cotton economy and slavery; conditions of enslavement; adaptation and resistance; abolitionist debate—ideological, legal, religious and economic arguments for and against slavery, and their impact
- Origins of the Civil War: the Nullification Crisis; states’ rights; sectionalism; slavery; political issues; economic differences between the North and South
- Reasons for, and effects of, westward expansion and the sectional debates; the crises of the 1850s; compromise of 1850; political developments, including the Lincoln–Douglas debates and the presidential election of 1860
- Union versus Confederate: strengths and weaknesses; economic resources; role and significance of leaders during the Civil War; role of Lincoln; significant military battles/campaigns
- Factors affecting the outcome of the Civil War; the role of foreign relations; the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) and participation of African Americans in the Civil War
- Reconstruction: presidential and congressional plans; methods of southern resistance; economic, social and political successes and failures
- African Americans in the New South: legal issues; the black codes; Jim Crow laws
9: The development of modern nations (1865-1929)
- Causes and consequences of railroad construction; industrial growth, urbanization and economic modernization; the development of international and inter-American trade; neocolonialism and dependency
- Causes and consequences of immigration; emigration and internal migration, including the impact upon, and experience of, indigenous peoples
- Development and impact of ideological trends, including progressivism, Manifest Destiny, liberalism, nationalism, positivism, social Darwinism, “indigenismo” and nativism
- Social and cultural changes: developments in the arts; changes in the role of women
- Influence of leaders in the transition to the modern era: political and economic aims; the successes and failures of Theodore Roosevelt, Wilfrid Laurier and any one Latin American leader
- Social, economic and legal conditions of African Americans between 1865 and 1929; Plessy versus Ferguson, the Great Migration and the Harlem Renaissance; the search for civil rights and the ideas, aims and tactics of Booker T Washington, WEB Du Bois and Marcus Garvey
10: Emergence of the Americas in global affairs (1880-1929)
- United States’ expansionist foreign policies: political, economic, social and ideological reasons
- Spanish–American War (1898): causes and effects
- Impact of United States’ foreign policies: the Big Stick; Dollar Diplomacy; moral diplomacy
- United States and the First World War: from neutrality to involvement; reasons for US entry into the First World War; Wilson’s peace ideals and the struggle for ratification of the Treaty of Versailles in the United States; significance of the war for the United States’ hemispheric status
- Involvement of either Canada or one Latin American country in the First World War: nature of, and reasons for, involvement
- Impact of the First World War on any two countries of the Americas: economic, political, social and foreign policies
11: The Mexican Revolution (1884-1940)
- Rule of Porfirio Diaz from 1884; political control; contribution to discontent
- Causes of the Mexican Revolution: social, economic and political
- The revolution and its leaders (1910–1917): ideologies, aims and methods of Madero, Villa, Zapata, Carranza; achievements and failures; the 1917 Constitution—nature and application
- Construction of the post-revolutionary state (1920–1940): Obregón, Calles and the Maximato; challenges; assessment of their impact in the post-revolutionary state
- Lázaro Cárdenas and the renewal of the revolution (1934–1940): aims, methods and achievements
- The role of foreign powers (especially the United States) in the outbreak and development of the Mexican Revolution; motivations, methods of intervention and contributions
- Impact of the revolution on women, the arts, education and music
12: The Great Depression and the Americas (mid 1920s-1939)
- The Great Depression: political and economic causes in the Americas
- Nature and efficacy of solutions in the United States: Hoover; Franklin D Roosevelt and the New Deal
- Critics of the New Deal; impact of the New Deal on US political and economic systems
- Nature and efficacy of solutions in Canada: Mackenzie King and RB Bennett
- Impact of the Great Depression on Latin America; political instability and challenges to democracy; economic and social challenges
- Latin American responses to the Great Depression: import substitution industrialization (ISI); social and economic policies; popular mobilization and repression
- Impact of the Great Depression on society: specifically the impact on women and minorities; impact of the Great Depression on the arts and culture
13: The Second World War and the Americas (1933-1945)
- Hemispheric reactions to the events in Europe and Asia: inter-American diplomacy; cooperation and neutrality; Franklin D Roosevelt’s Good Neighbour policy—its application and effects
- Involvement and participation of any two countries of the Americas in the Second World War
- Social impact of the Second World War; impact on women and minorities; conscription
- Treatment of Japanese Americans, Japanese Latin Americans and Japanese Canadians
- Reasons for, and significance of, US use of atomic weapons against Japan
- Economic and diplomatic effects of the Second World War in any two countries of the Americas
14: Political developments in Latin America (1945-1980)
- The Cuban Revolution: political, social and economic causes
- Rule of Fidel Castro: Cuban nationalism; political, economic, social and cultural policies; treatment of opposition; successes and failures; impact on the region
- Populist leaders in two countries: rise to power and legitimacy; ideology; social, economic and political policies; the treatment of opposition
- Democracy in crisis: reasons for the failure of elected leaders
- Rise of a military dictatorship in one country: reasons for their rise to power; economic and social policies; repression and treatment of opposition
- Guerrilla movements in one country: origins, rise and consequences
- Liberation theology in Latin America: origins, growth and impact
15: Political developments in the United States (1945-1980) and Canada (1945-1982)
- Truman and the Fair Deal; division within Democratic Party; congressional opposition; domestic policies of Eisenhower
- Kennedy and the New Frontier; Johnson and the Great Society
- Nixon’s domestic policies; Watergate and possible impeachment; Ford’s domestic policies and pardon of Nixon; Carter’s domestic policies; changing composition and internal conflicts within the Democratic and Republican parties in the 1960s and 1970s, and the impact on elections
- Domestic policies of Canadian prime ministers: St Laurent, Diefenbaker; political stability and nationalism; social and political change under Pearson and Trudeau
- Causes and effects of the Quiet Revolution; rise of Quebec nationalism, the Front de Libération du Québec (FLQ) and the October Crisis of 1970
16: The Cold War and the Americas (1945-1981)
- Truman: containment and its implications for the Americas; the rise of McCarthyism and its effects on domestic and foreign policies of the United States; social and cultural impact of the Cold War
- Korean War, the United States and the Americas: reasons for participation; military developments; diplomatic and political outcomes
- Eisenhower and Dulles: New Look and its application; characteristics and reasons for the policy; repercussions for the region
- United States’ involvement in Vietnam: the reasons for, and nature of, the involvement at different stages; domestic effects and the end of the war; Canadian non-support of the war; Latin American protest against the war
- United States’ foreign policies from Kennedy to Carter: the characteristics of, and reasons for, policies; implications for the region: Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress; Nixon’s covert operations and Chile; Carter’s quest for human rights and the Panama Canal Treaty (1977)
- Cold War in either Canada or one Latin American country: reasons for foreign and domestic policies and their implementation
17: Civil rights and social movements in the Americas post-1945
- Indigenous peoples and civil rights in the Americas
- African Americans and the civil rights movement: origins, tactics and organizations; the US Supreme Court and legal challenges to segregation in education; ending of segregation in the south (1955–1980)
- Role of Dr Martin Luther King Jr in the civil rights movement; the rise of radical African American activism (1965–1968): Black Panthers; Black Power and Malcolm X; role of governments in civil rights movements in the Americas
- Feminist movements in the Americas; reasons for emergence; impact and significance
- Hispanic American movement in the United States; Cesar Chavez; immigration reform
- Youth culture and protests of the 1960s and 1970s: characteristics and manifestation of a counter-culture
18: The Americas (1980-2005)
- The United States: domestic policies of presidents Reagan, GHW Bush and Clinton; challenges; effects on the United States; impact upon the hemisphere; continuities and changes in US foreign policy: Reagan, GHW Bush and Clinton; from bipolar to unilateral power; impact on the region
- Canadian domestic policies: Mulroney governments (1984–1993), collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party; Chrétien in power (1993–2003), Quebec and separatism
- Transition to democracy in two countries of Latin America: reasons for democratization; role of internal and external factors
- Post-transition challenges in two countries of Latin America: economic challenges and debt; justice and reconciliation; political parties and the role of the military
- Violent and non-violent movements in two countries of Latin America: causes, aims and impact; role of religion, including liberation theology
- Economic and political cooperation in the Americas: reasons for and impact
- Terrorism; 9/11 and response: domestic impact
1: Trade and exchange: The Silk Road in the medieval world (750-1500)
- The Silk Road under the Tang dynasty
- Connecting west and east: interregional trade; travellers and explorers; merchants; missionaries and pilgrims; Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo
- Increase in trade under the Mongol Empire: role of Mongol expansion and empire in re-establishing and increasing trade; establishment of political centres of the Mongol Empire; Tamerlane; Samarkand
- Political and cultural integration: connection of previously isolated nomadic societies; political unification of zones
- Cultural interaction and exchange: transmission of religious ideas and art
- Decline in the 15th century: causes of decline; rise in seaborne trade; fragmentation and loosening of political, cultural and economic unity after the end of the Mongol Empire
2: Japan in the Age of the Samurai (1180-1333)
- The Gempei War (1180–1185) and the establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate
- The expanding role of the samurai under Minamoto; rising military and economic power; replacement of court government with the samurai; role in developing law
- Struggles between samurai clans
- Establishment of the first samurai-dominated government; declining power of the emperor
- Samurai life: samurai ethos/ethical code or “Bushido”—the way of the warrior; focus on group loyalty and discipline; influence of Buddhism; samurai weapons and armour; the role of samurai women
- Impact of the samurai on Japanese society and culture
- The Mongol invasions of Japan and the kamikaze storms (1274 and 1281)
3: Exploration, trade and interaction in East Asia and South-East Asia (1405-1700)
- China “looking out”: Chinese shipbuilding programme; “treasure ships”; construction of an imperial fleet; the voyages of Zheng He (Cheng Ho); increased overseas trade
- Japan “looking out”: trade links established with Portugal (1543); arrival of traders from other European countries; missionaries
- The significance and impact of the beginnings of Indo-European trade: Vasco da Gama (1498); the capture of Malacca (1511); Magellan’s journey (1519)
- Reasons for, and impact of, the expeditions, and nature of the settlements, of the Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch and British; impact of European settlements on the indigenous people; social, religious and cultural exchange; demographic and territorial changes
- China “turning in”: increased Chinese isolationism; isolationist policies; restrictions on ships, including destruction of ocean-going ships (1525)
- Japan “turning in”: Japanese isolationism in the 17th century; sakoku (closed country policy) restrictions on foreigners entering Japan and Japanese leaving Japan; strict regulations on trade and commerce; creation of four “gateways”
- Social, political and economic impact of isolation on China and Japan
4: The rise and fall of the Mughal Empire (1526-1712)
- Origins and rise of Mughal power: Babur and Humayun
- Consolidation of Mughal rule in the subcontinent: domestic, military, religious, economic and cultural policies
- Significance of individual rulers for the Mughal Empire: Akbar, Shah Jahan I and Aurangzeb
- Impact of religious cooperation and conflict in the Mughal Empire
- Reasons for, and effects of, domestic opposition
- Social, cultural and economic achievements
- Role of internal and external forces in the decline of the Mughal Empire
5: Colonialism and the development of nationalism in South-East Asia (c1750-1914)
- Political structure and the economic, social and cultural effects of the Dutch colonial system in Indonesia: culture system; liberal policy; decline of the Dutch East India Company (VOC); increasing Dutch state control and the introduction of the Ethical Policy (1901)
- Political structure and the economic, social and cultural effects of the French colonial system in Indo-China: factors that led to the formation of French Indo-China (1887)
- Political structure and the economic, social and cultural effects of the Spanish colonial system in the Philippines: Philippine Revolution (1896); significance of Rizal, Bonifacio and Aguinaldo
- The Philippines and the United States: Spanish-American War (1898); colonial rule by the United States
- The beginnings of nationalism in Indonesia, Philippines and Indo-China
- Siamese monarchy; internal and external factors that maintained independence; Rama IV (Mongkut), Rama V (Chulalongkorn)
6: India, Afghanistan and Burma (1750-1919)
- Expansion of the British East India Company: Battle of Plassey (1757); Anglo-Maratha Wars; Anglo-Mysore Wars
- Economic, social and cultural effects of the British colonial system in India; role of the British East India Company (1773–1857); impact of the policies of Dalhousie and Bentinck
- Causes of the Great Revolt (Indian Mutiny) of 1857; political, social and economic consequences of the Great Revolt
- Key developments 1858–1914: Government of India Act 1858; the partition of Bengal (1905); the Morley–Minto reforms of 1909; outbreak of the First World War; social and economic impact of the British Raj
- Development and significance of constitutional groups; growth of national consciousness; Indian National Congress (1885) and the All India Muslim League (1906)
- Afghanistan: Russo-British rivalry; “The Great Game”; North-West frontier; First, Second and Third Anglo-Afghan Wars; policies of the Afghan monarchy; resistance to British influence
- Burma: King Mindon; King Thibaw; reasons for loss of independence; First, Second and Third Anglo-Burmese Wars; economic, social and cultural effects of the British colonial system in Burma; rise of resistance and nationalism
7: Challenges to traditional East Asian societies (1700-1868)
- The nature and structure of imperial rule under the Qing dynasty; Qianlong
- Causes and effects of internal challenges; White Lotus Rebellion
- The Chinese tribute system and western trade missions
- Causes and consequences of the First and Second Opium Wars; the unequal treaties
- Taiping (Taip’ing) Rebellion: reasons for the rise and fall; consequences for Chinese society
- The Tokugawa Shogunate’s rule in Japan: economic and social structure
- Internal challenges; social and economic changes and reasons for discontent
- Commodore Perry’s expedition and the crisis of the Bakumatsu period (1853–1868); reasons for the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate
8: British colonialism and emerging national identities in Oceania (1788-1919)
- Indigenous societies and the impact of early colonial settlements; Treaty of Waitangi (1840)
- Settlement schemes; immigration to Australia and New Zealand; early colonial settlements; land distribution; pastoral society; squatters and the Selection Acts
- Reasons for, and impact of, tensions between indigenous people and the settlers
- Social and economic impact of the gold rushes; growth of cities; emergence of the labour movement
- Constitutional developments; growth of national identity; the federation movement; National Australasian Conventions; the achievement of dominion status in Australia (1901) and New Zealand (1907)
- Political, social and economic impact of the First World War on Australia and New Zealand; Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs); significance of Gallipoli
- The nature and impact of British administration in the Pacific Islands
9: Early modernization and imperial decline in East Asia (1860-1912)
- Tongzhi restoration and Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1894); Cixi
- Impact of defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895); Guangxu and the Hundred Days’ Reform (1898)
- Boxer Rebellion (1900–1901); the late Qing reforms
- Sun Yixian and the causes of the 1911 Xinhai Revolution; the reasons for its failure
- Meiji restoration (1868) in Japan; the 1889 Constitution
- Social, cultural and economic developments in Meiji Japan
- The rise of Japanese military power; victory in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)
- Korean isolation: Queen Min; opening (1876); Tonghak Rebellion (1894); Japanese annexation (1910)
10: Nationalism and independence in India (1919-1964)
- Impact of the First World War: demands for Home Rule
- Significance of key political developments, including Amritsar massacre (1919); Government of India Act 1919; Simon Commission (1928); Round Table Conferences (1930–1932); response to Government of India Act 1935
- Role and importance of key groups and individuals: Indian National Congress and the All India Muslim League; Gandhi; Jawaharlal Nehru; Jinnah
- Struggle for independence; non-cooperation movement; civil disobedience campaigns; Salt March (1930); Quit India campaign (1942)
- Growth of Muslim separatism; “Two-Nation” theory; Lahore Resolution (1940)
- Impact of the Second World War: Chandra Bose; the Cripps Mission (1942); weakening of British power; Mountbatten; achievement of independence; reasons for the partition of the South Asian subcontinent (1947)
- Post-independence India: ethnic and religious conflicts; princely states; Kashmir; successes and failures of Nehru’s domestic policies
11: Japan (1912-1990)
- The impact of the First World War and the post-war conferences
- Taisho democracy: the growth of liberal values and the two-party system
- Reasons for, and impact of, the rise of militarism and extreme nationalism: increasing influence of the army in politics; political coups and assassinations
- Invasions of Manchuria (1931) and China (1937), and impact on relations with the West; Three Party/ Tripartite Pact (1940); US embargo (1940)
- Japan and the Pacific War (1941–1945): decision to attack Pearl Harbor; initial successes; reasons for defeat
- The US occupation (1945–1952): social, political and cultural changes; the reverse course (1950)
- Reasons for Japan’s “economic miracle”; social, cultural and economic impact of globalization
12: China and Korea (1910-1950)
- Rise of national identity in China: Yuan Shikai; Sun Yixian; 21 Demands (1915); new culture movement; Treaty of Versailles (1919); May Fourth movement (1919); effects of warlordism
- Nationalist rule of China: Guomindang leadership and ideology; Jiang Jieshi; successes and failures of domestic policy during the Nanjing decade (1927–1937)
- Rise of communism in China: Chinese Communist Party (CCP) ideology; First United Front; Shanghai massacre (1927); Yan’an; Jiangxi Soviet; Long March; Mao Zedong
- Impact of Japanese invasion of China; Manchuria (1931); Second United Front; Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945); Chinese Civil War (1946–1949); nature of conflict; reasons for communist victory
- Impact of Japanese rule of Korea: social, political and economic effects of annexation (1910); impact of the Sino-Japanese War on Korea: Japanese use of forced labour, conscription and comfort women; division of Korea at 38th parallel (1945); Syngman Rhee; Kim Il-Sung
- Taiwan and Republic of China (ROC): nature of Jiang Jieshi’s rule: martial law (1949); White Terror (1950); beginnings of Taiwanese independence movement
13: Impact of the world wars on South-East Asia
- Impact of the First World War; Treaty of Versailles (1919)
- Reasons for, and effects of, initial Japanese victories in South-East Asia (1940–1942)
- The nature and impact of Japanese occupation
- Growth of nationalism and role of independence movements during the war in Dutch East Indies/Indonesia; Vietnam; Malaya: resistance and collaboration
- Emergence and influence of leaders: Sukarno; Ho Chi Minh; Tunku Abdul Rahman
- The reasons for Indonesian independence (1949)
- Case study on one country in South-East Asia (other than one already named in this section): political, social and economic effects of the First World War and the Second World War
14: The People’s Republic of China (1949-2005)
- Consolidation of the communist state (1949–1961) under Mao Zedong; key policies; land reforms; rectification campaigns; Hundred Flowers campaign (1956)
- Transition to socialism; successes and failures in economic developments (1949–1961); First Five-Year Plan; Great Leap Forward; Second Five-Year Plan
- Social developments; women’s rights; health; education
- Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution: causes; Gang of Four; political, social and cultural impact
- Foreign policy and foreign affairs 1949–1976; Sino-American relations; establishment and breakdown of Sino-Soviet relations; China as a regional and global power
- Power struggle following the death of Mao Zedong; Hua Guofeng, the re-emergence of Deng Xiaoping and the defeat of the Gang of Four
- China under Deng Xiaoping (1976–1997); economic developments; Four Modernizations; political developments; causes and effects of Tiananmen Square (1989); Jiang Zemin
15: Cold War conflicts in Asia
- Malaya: Emergency (1948–1960): the Malayan Communist Party (MCP); British/Commonwealth response; nature of conflict; resolution and legacy
- Korea: Korean War (1950–1953): causes; international responses; outcome; economic and political impact on the Korea peninsula
- Vietnam: League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh); Ho Chi Minh; French Indo-China War (1946–1954); Vietnam War (1956–1975): causes; nature of conflict; international involvement; outcome; economic and political effects on Vietnam
- Cambodia: failures of Sihanouk’s rule; Khmer Rouge ideology; Pol Pot; impact of Vietnam War; nature and impact of Khmer Rouge’s regime; invasion by Vietnamese, and civil war; international response; 1993 elections
- Afghanistan: reasons for, and impact of, Soviet invasion (1979); nature of conflict; international involvement; withdrawal of Soviet troops (1989); civil war (1989–1992)
16: Developments and challenges in South Asia after 1947
- Foreign policy and economic developments under Nehru: relationship between India and Pakistan; Indo-Pakistani Wars—1947, 1965, 1971; causes and results; independence of Bangladesh (1971)
- India: social, political and economic developments and challenges under Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi and Rao
- Pakistan 1947–1991: nation building; social, political and economic developments and challenges; friction between East and West Pakistan; cultural and linguistic differences; constitutional referendum (1991); Jinnah; Ayub Khan; Zulfikar Ali Bhutto; Zia-ul-Haq; Benazir Bhutto
- Bangladesh: nation building; social, political and economic developments and challenges
- Ceylon/Sri Lanka: nation building; social, political and economic developments and challenges; conflict between Sinhalese and Tamils; 1971 uprising; civil war; Sirimavo Bandaranaike
17: Developments in Oceania after the Second World War (1945-2005)
- Social and cultural developments; changing role of women; growth of national identity
- Immigration to Australia and New Zealand after the war, and the development of multicultural societies
- Policies and achievements of governments in Australia: Curtin; Chifley; Menzies; Whitlam; Fraser; Hawke/Keating
- Policies and achievements of governments in New Zealand: Fraser; Holyoake; Muldoon; Lange; Bolger
- Attitudes and policies towards indigenous peoples in Australia and New Zealand
- Australia and New Zealand: foreign policy and international alignments
- Economic policies and realignment: Britain joining the EEC (later European Union); the rise of Asian economies
- Reasons for, and results of, the emergence of independent Pacific Island states
18: Social, cultural and economic developments in Asia (excluding China, Japan and India) (1980-2005)
- Impact of globalization: causes and effects of economic growth; technological development; urbanization; demographic changes; changes in standards of living; economic and social impact of the tourist industry
- Immigration/emigration: causes and effects
- Social issues and developments: changes in social structures; gender roles; the environment; education; health reforms; impact of technology on society
- Religion: role of religion in society; religious conflict and tensions
- Cultural change: nature of, and changes, in traditional arts and culture; cultural impact of globalization; nature and role of the media
- Emergence of, and responses to, terrorism
1: Monarchies in England and France (1066-1223)
- Pre-Norman England and the impact of the Norman invasion
- Normans in England: William I, Duke of Normandy (King of England 1066–1087); establishment of authority; domestic and foreign policies; Domesday Book; Henry I (1100–1135)
- Angevin Commonwealth: Henry II (1154–1189); policies in England, Ireland and Gascony
- The Duchy of Normandy and its relations with France: rivalry and wars between the dukes of Normandy, as kings of England, and the kings of France; role played by John, Richard I, Henry II and Phillip II; effects in England and France
- Extension of the royal demesne and power in France under the Capetians (1108–1223); expansion of Capetian power under Louis VI, Louis VII and Phillip II, the nature of their governments, and reasons for their success in expanding royal authority
- Comparison of the nature of royal government in England and France
2: Muslims and Jews in medieval Europe (1095-1492)
- Reasons for hostility to Muslims: the Crusades; fear of Muslim power; Christian doctrine and teaching
- Reasons for Christian opposition to the Muslim states in Spain: religious motivation; economic ambition
- Continuous conflict between the Christian-ruled and Muslim-ruled states in Spain: results: warfare on the borders between Christian and Muslim states, for example, the Mediterranean and the Balkans; loss of economic activity and loss of cultural and intellectual diversity; growth of anti-Muslim feelings
- The role and contribution of Jews in medieval Europe: finance; trade; participation in royal bureaucracy and scholarship
- The reasons for persecution of Jews: religious hysteria during the Crusades; official and/or popular anti-Semitism and scapegoating; belief in Jewish culpability for the Black Death
- Impact of persecution of Jews: massacres; expulsion; segregation from society
- Impact of Jewish persecution on society: loss of skill and ability in economic, intellectual and cultural life
3: Late medieval political crises (1300-1487)
- Succession crises in England: Edward II (1307–1327); Richard II (1377–1399)
- The Hundred Years War 1337–1360 and 1369–1389: causes, course, impact and significance
- The Hundred Years War 1415–1453: reasons for the re-emergence of war; importance of Aquitaine; reasons for the outcome; impact in England and France
- The rise and fall of ducal Burgundy (1363–1477)
- Crisis of monarchy and challenges to royal authority in 15th-century England and France: Wars of the Roses and the War of the Public Weal
- Nature of kingship and challenges: England—Henry VI (1422–1461); Edward IV (1461–1483);
- France—Louis XI (1461–1483)
- The Wars of the Roses: causes; events; impact on England, including impact on government and royal authority
4: The Renaissance (c1400-1600)
- Origins, causes and development of the Renaissance in Italy; social and political situation in Florence
- Forms of government in Italian city states: Milan; Florence; Venice
- The importance of patronage: role and significance of Lorenzo de Medici and Ludovico Sforza; papal patronage
- Cultural and intellectual developments: art, literature, architecture and political writings
- The northern Renaissance: spread to Burgundy and Germany
- Case study of the spread and impact of the Renaissance to one European country not already mentioned in this section
5: The Age of Exploration and its impact (1400-1550)
- Motives for exploration and reasons for its increase in the 15th century: religion and exploration; national and personal rivalries; the quest for knowledge; opening up of new trade routes for luxury goods
- Enablers of exploration: patronage, including role and significance of Henry the Navigator; developments in shipbuilding, cartography and navigation
- Portuguese exploration of the west coast of Africa: significance; consequences; impact on indigenous peoples
- Exploration and the New World: significance; consequences; impact on indigenous peoples
- Exploration and the Indian Ocean: significance; consequences; impact on indigenous peoples
- The significance and impact of the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)
- Impact on Europe to 1550: economic impact on Europe; the “Columbian Exchange”
6: The Reformation (1517-1572)
- The state of the Catholic church in Europe at the start of the 16th century, and reasons for criticism
- The religious ideas and impact of Luther and Calvin
- Reasons for the successful spread of Lutheran ideas in Germany to 1547, including the attitudes of the German princes
- Religion and conflict in Germany: the Peasants’ War; the Schmalkaldic League and the Peace of Ausburg (1555)
- The role of spread and impact of Protestant ideas in any one of England, Scotland, France or the Netherlands: religious factors; aims and role of rulers; economic reasons; popular sentiments; religious conflicts
- The Catholic Reformation: spiritual movements; the Jesuits and other Catholic orders; clerical education and discipline; the Council of Trent (1545–1563)
7: Absolutism and Enlightenment (1650-1800)
- The goals and development of Enlightenment ideas; the Scientific Revolution
- Case study of Enlightenment ideas and their political impact in any two of Germany, England, Scotland, France, Spain, the Dutch Republic or Italy)
- Case study of any two absolutist monarchs: nature of their rule; extent of their power; foreign policy
- Case study of any two enlightened despots: policies and their impact; extent of change
- Social and economic change in the Enlightenment era; growth of cities; agricultural change
- Monarchy, patronage and the arts; the Baroque movement
8: The French Revolution and Napoleon I (1774-1815)
- Crisis of the Ancien Régime: role of the monarchy, specifically Louis XVI; intellectual, political, social, financial and economic challenges
- Monarchy to republic: causes and significance of the Revolution; the 1791 Constitution; the fate of the monarchy; the terror; Robespierre; the Thermidorean reaction
- The political, social and economic impact of the Revolution; French revolutionary wars (1792–1799)
- Establishment of, nature of, and collapse of the Directory (1795–1799)
- Rise and rule of Napoleon (1799–1815); impact of Napoleon’s domestic and foreign policies on France
- Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815); collapse of the Napoleonic Empire; military defeat; the Hundred Days
9: France (1815-1914)
- The Bourbon restoration, the Congress of Vienna and its impact on France
- The reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X: politics and society (1815–1830)
- Revolution of 1830 and the July Monarchy of Louis Philippe; reasons for the collapse of the July monarchy
- 1848 Revolution: Second Republic, repression and the emergence of Louis-Napoleon and the Second Empire
- Napoleon III and the Second Empire: domestic policies; stability; opposition; periods of reform; foreign policies, including Crimean War and interventions in Italy and Mexico
- Third Republic (1871–1914): stability and crises 1871–1890—problems in establishing the Republic and Boulangisme; 1890–1914—Dreyfus, growth of political extremes, corruption
10: Society, politics and economy in Britain and Ireland (1815-1914)
- Social protest (1815–1848): Peterloo; Chartism—reasons for emergence and failure; Peel and the repeal of the Corn Laws—reasons and consequences; the Irish Famine
- Extension of the franchise: reasons for, and consequences of, the Reform Acts (1832, 1867 and 1884–1885); impact on the political parties
- Victorian society c1840–c1900: the condition of the working class during the Industrial Revolution; urban poverty, social reforms
- Disraeli, Gladstone and Salisbury: domestic policies; the Irish Question
- Early 20th-century Britain: the emergence of the Labour Party; Lloyd George and social reforms—the “People’s Budget” and the Parliament Act
- Pre-war unrest and protest in Edwardian Britain: women’s suffrage, Ireland, trade unions
11: Italy (1815–1871) and Germany (1815-1890)
- Italy (1815–1849): impact of the Congress of Vienna on Italy, Austrian dominance, role of Metternich; nationalism and liberalism; attempted revolutions in Italy between 1820 and 1844; Mazzini and Gioberti; role of the papacy; 1848–1849 Revolutions—causes, nature, defeat and consequences
- Germany (1815–1849): impact of the Congress of Vienna on Germany; nationalism and liberalism in the Vormärz period; economic and social change before 1848; 1848–1849 Revolutions—causes, nature, defeat and consequences
- Unification of Italy (1849–1871); Cavour and Garibaldi; the role of foreign influence
- The rise of Prussia and the decline of Austria (1815–1866); the Zollverein
- Bismarck, Prussia and final unification: diplomatic, economic, military reorganization; Wars of Unification; the 1871 Constitution
- Germany (1871–1890): Bismarck’s domestic policies, including the Kulturkampf and the anti-socialist campaign; consolidation of the new German state and the role of Prussia within it
12: Imperial Russia, revolution and the establishment of the Soviet Union (1855-1924)
- Alexander II (1855–1881): the extent of reform
- Policies of Alexander III (1881–1894) and Nicholas II (1894–1917): economic modernization, tsarist repression and the growth of opposition
- Causes of the 1905 Revolution (including social and economic conditions and the significance of the Russo-Japanese War); consequences of the 1905 Revolution (including Stolypin and the Dumas)
- The impact of the First World War and the final crisis of autocracy in February/March 1917
- 1917 Revolutions: February/March Revolution; provisional government and dual power (Soviets); October/November Revolution; Bolshevik Revolution; Lenin and Trotsky
- Lenin’s Russia/Soviet Union; consolidation of new Soviet state; Civil War; War Communism; New Economic Policy (NEP); terror and coercion; foreign relation
13: Europe and the First World War (1871-1918)
- European diplomacy and the changing balance of power after 1871; imperial expansion in Africa and Asia, and its impact on European diplomacy; the Congress of Berlin and European Alliance system
- Foreign policy of Kaiser Wilhelm II: domestic conditions that impacted on German foreign policy; its impact/influence on other countries, including Britain, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary
- Causes of the First World War: short- and long-term causes; relative importance of causes; the Alliance system; the decline of the Ottoman Empire; German foreign policy; Austria-Hungary, Russia and Balkan nationalism; the arms race and diplomatic crises; the July Crisis of 1914
- Impact of the First World War on civilian populations of two countries from the region between 1914 and 1918
- Factors leading to the defeat of Germany and the other Central Powers, and to the victory of the Entente Powers: strategic errors; economic factors; entry and role of the US; domestic instability in the Central Powers
14: European states in the inter-war years (1918-1939)
- Weimar Germany: constitutional, political, economic/financial and social issues (1918–1933); initial challenges (1918–1923); “Golden Era” under Stresemann (1924–1929); the crisis years and the rise of Hitler (1929–1933)
- Hitler’s Germany (1933–1939): consolidation of power; Hitler’s pre-war domestic policies, including economic, social and political policies; nature of the Nazi state; the extent of resistance to the Nazis
- Italy (1918–1939): rise of Mussolini; consolidation of power; Mussolini’s pre-war domestic policies, including economic, social and political policies; nature of the fascist state
- Spain (1918–1939): political, social and economic conditions in Spain; the Primo de Rivera regime; polarization and political parties under the Second Republic; Azaña and Gil Robles; causes of the Civil War; foreign involvement; reasons for nationalist victory under Franco
- Case study of domestic political, economic and social developments in one European country (other than Germany, Italy or Spain) in the inter-war years.
15: Versailles to Berlin: Diplomacy in Europe (1919-1945)
- Peace settlements (1919–1923): Versailles; Neuilly; Trianon; St Germain; and Sèvres/Lausanne—aims, issues and responses
- The League of Nations and Europe: successes and failures; the search for collective security; developments in the successor states of central and eastern Europe
- Italian and German foreign policies (1919–1941): aims, issues and extent of success
- Collective security and appeasement (1919–1941): aims, issues and extent of success; role of British, French and Russian/Soviet foreign policies (1919–1941); Chamberlain and the Munich Crisis
- Causes of the Second World War and the development of European conflict (1939–1941); the wartime alliance (1941–1945); reasons for Axis defeat in 1945 and for Allied victory; role of economic, strategic and other factors
- Impact of the Second World War on civilian populations in any two countries between 1939–1945
16: The Soviet Union and post-Soviet Russia (1924-2000)
- Soviet Union (1924–1941): Stalin and the struggle for power (1924–1929); defeat of Trotsky; Stalin’s policies of collectivization and the Five-Year Plans; government and propaganda under Stalin; the purges and the Great Terror
- The impact of the Great Patriotic War (1941–1945); post-war Soviet Union (1945–1953): political and economic developments
- Khrushchev and Brezhnev: domestic policies and foreign relations
- Transformation of the Soviet Union (1985–1991): Gorbachev (aims, policies and extent of success); political developments and change
- Collapse of the Soviet Union; post-Soviet Russia to 2000; role and policies of Yeltsin; political and economic developments to 2000
17: Post-war western and northern Europe (1945-2000)
- Breakdown of the wartime alliance; emergence of the Cold War and its impact on Germany; division of Germany
- Post-war problems and political and economic recovery in western Europe: devastation and debt; reconstruction of France and West Germany (1945–1963) and the impact of the Marshall Plan; role of Adenauer; the German “economic miracle”; role of de Gaulle; “Les Trente Glorieuses” in France
- West Germany (1963–1990): domestic policies; challenge of Baader Meinhof Group/Red Army Faction; reunification, role and policies of Kohl; social and cultural change in West Germany from 1949 to 1990
- Spain: Franco’s regime and the transition to, and establishment of, democracy under Juan Carlos up to 1982; political, economic and social developments in Spain (1982–2000)
- Case study of political, social and economic changes in one western or northern European country (other than France, the Federal Republic of Germany and Spain) between 1945–2000
18: Post-war central and eastern Europe (1945-2000)
- Soviet domination: motives, extent and nature of Soviet control in central and eastern Europe (1945–1955); politics, economies (COMECON) and the Warsaw Pact (1945–1955); Yugoslavia’s challenge to Soviet control under Tito
- Support and cooperation, repression and protest (1945–1968): East Germany; Poland; Hungary; Czechoslovakia
- Acceptance of, and opposition to, Soviet control in central and eastern Europe (1968–1989): East Germany; Poland; Hungary and Czechoslovakia; Romania and Bulgaria; role of Walesa and Havel
- The collapse of Soviet control in central and eastern Europe; causes, developments and consequences
- Balkan conflicts in the 1990s: reasons for, and consequences of, the conflicts; role and policies of Milosevic
- Case study: the economic, social and political challenges of the post-communist era in any one central or eastern European country (1989–2000)